Maria Countess von Linden grew up in the rural seclusion of the family estate Burgberg on the edge of the Swabian Alb with similar freedoms as her older brother. As a child, she preferred to play with animals rather than dolls, went on botanical explorations and collected rock samples in the surrounding area.

Even at the Victoria boarding school in Karlsruhe, which she entered in 1883, she did not allow herself to be brought up as a "superior daughter". She was particularly interested in the "male" subjects of physics and sport. After a short time, she was "hors de concurrence" in both subjects and always had the best grade "excellent" on her report card. On her own initiative, she enquired at the Polytechnic in Zurich about the prerequisites for studying natural sciences, learning on her own initiative from her brother's books, a geometry textbook and a Latin grammar. Finally, she received private tuition in mathematics when it became apparent at school that her "strange inclinations" would "lead her down strange paths".

The women's clothing of the time really hindered her in gymnastics, but she didn't let that spoil her fun. "How we tortured ourselves with those long skirts and tight waists! [...] When we jumped over the bars, for example, we had to be particularly careful that our skirts came with us and didn't get caught, otherwise we'd end up lying dead on the floor. And when we were doing gymnastics on the rings or high bar, our dreadful skirts would easily slip over our heads, making the position very uncomfortable and the sight very unsightly. But it never occurred to any of the supervisors, who were shocked by this, to suggest that we should only do gymnastics in pants; this enlightenment was reserved for a later generation." As she describes in her memoirs, her classmates suspected that she was a boy in disguise and that her long hair was wrong because of her wildness and "bubbly airs".

Maria von Linden loved outdoor activities such as mountaineering, canoeing, cycling and hiking. After finishing school in 1888, she had wrested permission from her parents to go on a multi-day hike through the Black Forest on her own. For this undertaking, which was unusual for a young lady, her parents sent a domestic servant to accompany her. In her memoirs, Maria von Linden talks in detail about her experiences, the complications and her feeling of freedom on this tour, her "first flight". With these sporting activities, Maria von Linden took liberties that did not yet exist for women of her time.

Back at home, Maria von Linden planned the rest of her life. The urge "to acquire knowledge, perhaps to create knowledge, [...] was so powerful, so irresistible, that I was prepared to sacrifice everything else to it. [...] Our financial situation was also not such that I could lead a drone's life without losing my independence; I wanted neither to marry nor to be dependent on my relatives, and the only way to escape this was to work. It so happened that my inclination led me in the same direction as my intellectual considerations."

However, she did not even have the necessary qualifications for admission to university. Grammar schools for girls did not yet exist and her attendance at the best educational establishment for "higher daughters" far and wide did not qualify her for university. In this situation, she received support from her great-uncle, the former Württemberg minister Josef Freiherr von Linden, who lobbied the Ministry of Education, the university and not least her father on her behalf. Despite this protection from "Uncle Bebi", the first letter from the university was sobering, in which the chancellor also recommended "that for a young lady who wants to be called a doctor, offering her hand to a doctor would be much easier and more convenient than passing a rigorous examination."

While negotiations with the University of Tübingen continued, Maria von Linden worked independently, guided by her former teachers in Karlsruhe, to acquire the missing knowledge in mathematics, physics and Latin with impressive discipline. In 1891, as an external student and the first woman in Württemberg, she passed her Abitur at a boys' grammar school in Stuttgart. She correctly assessed that this did not remove all obstacles. "I now had my school-leaving certificate, but this in no way meant that I was admitted to lectures, because my gender had not yet changed with my intellectual maturity. Unfortunately for me, this metamorphosis [...] had not happened, and I had to reckon with this fact and the highly unmanly braid of academics." On the advice of her great-uncle, she made personal contact with key professors in Tübingen.

While preparing for her Abitur examinations, geological excursions she undertook led to her first scientific publication. In her study "Die Indusienkalke der Hürbe", published in 1890, she was able to explain the formation of certain limestone deposits.

In accordance with the patriarchal structure of society, the image of women at the end of the 19th century was characterized by the idea of the natural, mental and physical inferiority of women compared to men. Maria von Linden did not want to accept the limited scope for action of a woman of her time. Faced with the choice of leading an undemanding existence as a wife or an even more dependent one as a tolerated unmarried relative, she opted for a third option: a career as a scientist.

Unimpressed by the hostility of those around her, she did not allow herself to be dissuaded from her path. "Of course, my aspirations were often met with a shake of the head and all kinds of objections from my immediate and extended family and acquaintances [...]. The different opinions had already been expressed in the verses that my classmates, teachers and female teachers had entered in my family register. For the majority of people, women were still exclusively the heavenly rose weaver."

She wrote to her brother: "I [...] thank you for your effort to have thrown a grain into the basket filled with attempts at instruction from all sides. These various signs of interest and participation amuse me greatly, some by their innocence, others by unsuccessful mockery, still others by their futile efforts to convince me of the woman's destiny by a logical conclusion. [...] Hitherto woman has been accustomed to be ridiculed as soon as she put herself in the field of science on a par with man. These prejudices have contributed in particular to the fact that only a few have dared to go public. [...] Observation teaches us that women can step into the arena with men".

In choosing her path, Maria von Linden did not, as Ulrike Just believes, put her "womanhood up for grabs", but rather rigorously turned away from an idea of femininity that did not release women from their traditional gender role. She was concerned with liberating women from the constraints imposed on them. In doing so, she expanded the spectrum of role models for women. By presenting herself as more "masculine", she signaled that she did not see herself as a traditional woman, that she was breaking out of her predetermined role and also had "masculine" qualities to offer. This should not be confused with conforming to male society in order not to stand out as a woman. After all, what is emancipation actually about? The abolition of social gender roles and the free humanity of all. It is the confinement to one role that is restrictive. Even an emphatically "feminine" presentation as a woman can be a restriction of one's own possibilities if it is based on constraints imposed by gender stereotypes.

Maria von Linden even had to justify herself to Mathilde Weber, the women's rights activist who supported and sympathized with her and with whom she was regularly invited to dinner once a week. "She only wanted a fairer distribution of sunlight between the sexes, and in particular that the academic sun should also shine on female beings. But the woman who entered public life should, for God's sake, lose nothing of her 'pollen' and remain the archetype of femininity. As much as Mrs. Weber acknowledged my pioneering work, she could not come to terms with the fact that I, who had waited so long to become a boy, had a strong tendency to embody the 'third sex'. I wore jackets with stiff collars, men's hats, shoes that also bordered on the masculine in their massiveness, shape and size, I was on the best of terms with my fellow students, didn't blush when men and women were mentioned in lectures, in short - the pollen had already evaporated from my anthers or had never been formed in them. I endured talk after talk on this subject with the best of appetites, because all of this arose from an idealistic, fundamentally kind soul; but I was lost."

Marianne Weber - also a women's rights activist in the first women's movement - describes the women who in some places had forced their way into the lecture halls as individuals and by their own efforts on laborious private paths as "heroic fighters". These women had to break through "the Chinese wall of a millennia-old traditional ideal of femininity", overcome "the prickly fence of a family tradition" and resist "a public opinion" that "mocked them as ridiculous figures". The most cogent reason she gives for the "masculine" self-stylization of these first female students is that they had suffered greatly from the mere fact of being born as women.

"Gender determination had been a cruel shackle on the rain of intellectual wings and all freedom of movement; breaking through it had cost such struggles and pain that intellectually gifted natures truly could not fathom their womanhood as an intrinsic value [...]. Now it had finally been possible to open the closed gates. Therefore, it finally seemed to be time to emphasize their humanity to themselves and others and to push their femininity into the background as an insignificant modification of it." This was precisely the impression Maria von Linden made on Wladimir Lindenberg, who studied medicine in Bonn from 1921 to 1926 and adored her. He wrote that he had never met a woman "who was not a woman and not a man, but simply a human being".

We do not know whether Maria von Linden actually wanted to change her gender and become a man or "simply be human". What is decisive is what she proved through her life, namely that many things are compatible with being a woman that were previously considered unthinkable.

"In Tübingen in the year of salvation 1892 there were cultural sensations: a porter, a hackney carriage and, now that I had happily moved into the university town, a female student. So the good things had come in threes, and I can probably describe this last sensation as the most noble without exaggeration, because there were porters and hackney carriages in many larger cities in Swabia at the time, but I was the first and only student in the whole kingdom." After a year of waiting, she was granted special permission to study zoology, botany and physics at the Eberhard Karls University in Tübingen by the Senate in 1892 by ten votes to eight. It was not until 1904 that women in Württemberg were generally allowed to study, in Baden as the first state in Germany in 1900, and in Prussia not until 1908.

The exemption granted to her only allowed her the status of a guest student; she could not enrol as a regular student. "But [...] strictly speaking, I was not one of the legitimate children of the Alma mater Eberhardina Carolina, because I lacked the civil registration, the matriculation. Basically, this was a double standard that defied all justice." But thanks to her stubbornness, she "didn't let this further discrimination make her hair grow gray".

She tackled her studies with enthusiasm, attending lectures, working in the lab, preparing things. Fortunately, she was self-confident enough to parry when a professor made fun of her. In her first histology course, she recalls in her autobiography, Prof. Eimer said to her: "'Isn't that right, Gräfle, man is made of dirt?", to which she replied: "'Yes, Professor, but only man'". After a short time, she even managed to break into the medical faculty, which was initially closed to her. In 1895, after just six semesters, she was awarded a Dr. rer. nat. for her dissertation in zoology entitled "The development of the sculpture and drawing of the shell snails of the sea".

In addition to the fundamental difficulties of being a woman at university, Maria von Linden had to struggle with financial constraints throughout her studies. She had already saved money beforehand to be able to realize her plans, as she could not count on her father's support. "My father had no great desire to do so, nor did he have superfluous means, and he could hardly be expected to make sacrifices for a cause that he did not approve of in any way. I had been collecting treasures in secret for years, so that one day I could use them for my own purposes. Through paperwork, occasional gifts, selling medicinal herbs to the pharmacy, harvesting, selling old stamps, which I acquired wherever I found them, I had gradually saved up 1000 marks. With this amount, I was able to study for almost a year at that time. Inspired by her zeal, her uncle Karl Graf von Linden also initially granted her a monthly allowance.

After the death of her father in 1893, her financial situation worsened, but she also received help from various sources. "I myself was also put in a difficult situation, as my uncle withdrew his support for my studies as a result of the inheritance disputes. When the professors in Tübingen learned that the breadbasket had been hung so high for me, they generously sent me back the college funds, and Professor Weber immediately provided me with a considerable study grant from the General German Women's Association [...] All my acquaintances outdid themselves in their efforts to help me, so that I was once again reassured that my studies were not in doubt".

Shortly afterwards, Maria von Linden fell ill with severe pneumonia and continued to lose weight. The doctors advised her to go to Davos for a year's cure, otherwise she might only have two years to live. She replied: "'Two years is just enough to complete my doctorate, that's my goal for now, so I'll stay here." It took months for her to recover and she was left with a "cracked lung".

Maria von Linden was also affected by her concern for her mother, whom she "loved tenderly". Her right to live in Burgberg was questioned by her heirs and she was not financially secure. In 1893, she brought her mother to Tübingen and moved into a new small apartment with her. She got on well with her mother, stayed in Tübingen during the vacations because of her, took her on excursions and rejoiced "happily" with her when she passed her doctoral examination.

After completing her doctorate, Maria von Linden substituted for an assistant at the Zoological Institute in Halle in the winter semester of 1896/97, after which she worked for two years as an assistant at Prof. Eimer's institute in Tübingen. After Eimer's death, she moved to Bonn, where she was employed as an assistant at the Zoological Institute from 1899 to 1906. Prof. Ludwig, the director of the institute, had requested the extension of her contract every year, but at the end of 1905 this was no longer the case. The reasons for this are not clear from the files. In 1906, von Linden took up a new position as an assistant at Prof. Freiherr von la Valette St. George's Institute of Anatomy, which involved a move from the Faculty of Philosophy to the Faculty of Medicine.

In 1906, Maria von Linden submitted a habilitation application in comparative biology to the Faculty of Philosophy at Bonn University. Her request triggered intensive negotiations. The first application for the habilitation of a woman, Adeline Rittershaus-Bjarnason, had been rejected by the faculty in 1901 by 16 votes to 14. In the case of von Linden, it voted 17 to 13 in favor of admission in 1906. However, at the instigation of Prof. Ludwig, an opponent of habilitation for women, the matter was referred to the Prussian Minister of Culture for a fundamental decision. On May 25, 1908, he rejected von Linden's application and generally denied women the right to habilitate with the following justification: "The academic senates and faculties of all universities on this side, which I have heard on the matter, have [...] declared by a very large majority that the admission of women to academic careers is neither compatible with the current constitution nor with the interests of the universities."

Instead, Maria von Linden was transferred by the minister to the Institute of Hygiene and, as "head of department" - not "director" as was customary - was tasked with setting up a new parasitology department. During the entire 25 years of her work in this department, von Linden had to struggle with the financial resources of her institute, an appropriate salary and spatial difficulties.

Here is just one example of this scandalous story: her demotion to assistant in 1921 in her own words: "In 1920, an attempt was made for the fourth time to include the institute in the state budget. This time the application was accepted by the state parliament, but now met with resistance from the Ministry of Education itself, which believed it had to solve the question of nationalization and securing the position of head of the institute by approving the budget for the laboratory under the title 'Hygienic Institute' and creating a budgeted assistant position at the Hygienic Institute for the head of the institute instead of the requested position of head of department, which she had held outside the budget since 1908 [...]. The head's official title remained 'Head of the Parasitological Laboratory'. With the departure of the director, both positions (expenditure budget for the laboratory and renumeration of the director) were to be abolished." She was thus also denied an upgrade of her parasitology department to an independent institute.

On May 3, 1910, the Minister of Culture appointed Maria von Linden professor "in recognition of her academic achievements". However, she did not receive the venia legendi, the public teaching license. It was unimaginable for male minds that a woman should teach scientific and medical knowledge to male students. In contrast, a woman was happy to make her scientific contribution in secret. Von Linden had to limit herself to demonstrations following the lectures of the Director of the Institute of Hygiene.

After the separation of the Parasitological Laboratory from the Institute of Hygiene and the move to a new building in 1913, she devoted herself entirely to research. In addition to combating and researching parasites in humans and animals, she focused on bacteriology and chemotherapy for infectious diseases, in particular tuberculosis.

She discovered the antiseptic effect of copper, which was used by the Paul Hartmann company in Heidenheim to produce sterile bandages. The list of her publications comprises more than one hundred titles. In 1900, she was awarded a prize by the French Academy of Sciences for her study "The colors of butterflies and their causes".

Maria von Linden recognized the danger posed by National Socialism early on. After the Hitler coup in 1923, she told Wladimir Lindenberg how susceptible she thought the Germans were to this ideology: "You will experience it: Workers, citizens and aristocrats will run after this screamer and shout hurrah. That is not surprising: For centuries, people have been automatons of obedience, bartered away by princes as mercenaries and abused as cannon fodder. Human dignity was trampled underfoot. [...] It will certainly take a tremendously long process to educate people to become thinking, conscientious and responsible citizens." Her cousin Friedrich Freiherr von Linden confirmed her anti-Nazi stance, "which she never made a secret of".

On October 1, 1933, Maria von Linden was forced to retire with reference to Section 6 of the "Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service". She emigrated to Schaan in the Principality of Liechtenstein. She was granted a "grace pension", which had to be extended every two years. Her permission to reside abroad was also only ever granted for a limited period. The revocation of her German citizenship was considered.

When she applied for a home country permit for a visit to Germany in 1934, her political views were checked. The German consulate in Liechtenstein reported to the Mayor of Bonn: "Nothing detrimental in the actual sense has come to light so far, but it should be noted that Countess von Linden was uninterested in all German events, including the Winterhilfswerk. She is regarded as an opponent of present-day Germany, without any evidence that she was active against it, and also cultivated contacts with emigrants." The deputy dean of the medical faculty, who was questioned in this matter, played down the consulate's report, perhaps to avoid getting von Linden into trouble, but it remains to be said that she was an opponent of the Nazi regime.

Maria von Linden lived in Bonn for 34 years in the house of the widow of the physicist of Jewish origin Heinrich Hertz and her two daughters. In 1935, she tried to find ways for the family she had befriended to leave the country by asking a former student of Hertz, a professor in Norway, for help to "create a humane existence for the family outside the Third Reich".

In Liechtenstein, Maria von Linden devoted herself to scientific studies in the field of cancer research. She died in 1936 at the age of 67 as a result of pneumonia.

Little is known about Maria von Linden's private life. It is therefore revealing that in 1953, Gabriele Countess von Wartensleben was buried in Maria von Linden's grave in Schaan/Liechtenstein as her life friend.

Gabriele Freiin von Andrian-Werburg was born in Ansbach/Bavaria in 1870 and married Konrad Graf von Wartensleben in 1890. She gave birth to a son in 1891, who died at the age of twenty. The marriage ended in divorce in 1895. In 1895, she passed her Matura in Zurich and went on to study classical philology and archaeology in Zurich and Heidelberg. In 1900, she became the first woman to receive a doctorate from the University of Vienna. From 1900 to 1925, she lived in Frankfurt/Main, with brief interruptions in Munich in 1911/12 and 1922/23.

She was involved in the association "Frauenbildung - Frauenstudium". There she met the gynecologist Elisabeth Winterhalter, who was on the board of the association. With the help of this association, the first privately organized secondary school courses for girls were launched in Frankfurt in 1901. From 1905, von Wartensleben taught these grammar school courses at the Elisabethenschule to girls who were still denied normal access to the Abitur.

Between 1911 and 1921, she was in charge of teacher training. In 1908, she began studying at the Psychological Institute of the Frankfurt Academy of Social Sciences - the University of Frankfurt did not open until 1914/15.

She was in close contact with Max Wertheimer and is considered a pioneer of Gestalt theory due to her publications in 1914 and 1925. From 1925 to 1933, she lived in Schaan/Liechtenstein. From 1933 to 1953 she worked as a teacher and author in Basel. In 1938, a comprehensive retrospective of Ottilie W. Roederstein's works was held at the Frankfurter Kunstverein on her initiative and that of Elisabeth Winterhalter, Roederstein's partner. Von Wartensleben became a citizen of Liechtenstein in 1920 and of Switzerland in 1939.

Maria von Linden and Gabriele von Andrian-Werburg had become friends at the Victoria boarding school in 1883. In her memoirs of 1929, von Linden, who also speaks of a life-long friendship, writes: "In the second half of the year, I became friends with Gabriele von Andrian. The reason for our friendship, which was made for life, was peculiar. Gabriele was a more reserved character. She didn't have many friends because she was considered haughty. One morning she came through our doorway to go into the garden and said good morning in a not very loud voice as she passed. None of the girls answered her except me. When I reproached them, they said that Gabriele was arrogant and wouldn't get an answer if she didn't say good morning loudly. I was outraged by this and immediately went to the boycotted girl, and from that day on we were friends."

From August to November 1888, von Linden visited her friend at her parents' house in Bad Aussee. She writes: "I now spent the most enjoyable weeks in beautiful Styria under the hospitable roof of Villa Andrian. Not only was I extremely happy to be with my friend, but my intellectual endeavors also found the nourishment they longed for in this particularly high and stimulating environment. [...] The weeks I was supposed to stay at first had already turned into months. My friend wanted to have me with her, and I felt so comfortable in her surroundings [...] that I did not feel the urge to return to Burgberg."

In 1890, von Linden traveled to Karlsruhe for her friend's wedding. From Tübingen, she visited her friend, who studied in Zurich and Heidelberg from 1895. It can be assumed that the two friends were in contact when von Wartensleben was living in Frankfurt. From 1925, von Linden often spent her vacations in Schaan with her friend, where she also emigrated in 1933.

Switzerland was a pioneer in women's studies. In 1840, the first female guest students attended Zurich University, and in 1867 they were accepted as full students. In England, Russia and Scandinavia, women were able to enrol regularly from the 1870s onwards. A decade later, this was also possible at universities in Spain, Belgium and Serbia. In Italy, some universities had even been open to women since the Middle Ages. In France, universities were never completely closed to women; they had been able to obtain university degrees since 1860. And in the USA, there were at least women's colleges from 1850.

One of the laggards in Europe was Germany, which only began to open its universities to women in 1900. Maria von Linden, who applied for a doctorate at the University of Tübingen in 1888 despite all the adversity, adopted Hedwig Dohm's statement: "Women should study because every person is entitled to the individual freedom to pursue a business that suits their inclination. [...] Freedom in the choice of profession is the most indispensable condition for individual happiness."

In 1929, Maria von Linden looked back on her life with composure: "From my present point of view, two things were symptomatic of my later life: the struggle with my purse and the ability to emerge from this struggle with circumstances without losing any of my zest for life". Her optimistic nature was certainly a basic prerequisite for surviving the lifelong struggle with the backward conditions in Germany. However, she did not hide her resignation from Vladimir Lindenberg around 1923. "When the unfortunate war finally came to an end - and forgive me, but I was glad that we had lost it [...] - I thought we might be entering a new era [...]. I was bitterly mistaken: the people remained the same, and nobody [...] had the intention or the courage to reform everything, because in this world everything is in need of reform. I am deeply disappointed. As a woman, I fought bitterly against the world of men to get the right to be an academic teacher. How much strength that took and how many humiliations I had to go through! And today [...] there is only one woman apart from me who has become a professor. I thought it would be different in the new democracy; nothing has changed."

Maria von Linden remained isolated within the university, her colleagues rejected the intrusion of a woman into their world. When the rector suggested to her in 1915 that she should no longer take part in the university's festivities because her presence as a female professor would cause protocol problems, she demanded that this suggestion be put in writing. "The rector was taken aback: 'You are a clever person, why do you insist on recording this conversation?' - 'I don't doubt my cleverness, Magnificence. But I think this protocol would be an interesting document for the future. It would demonstrate what the German professors [...] are dealing with during the war. - The rector remained silent, the document was not drawn up and Maria Linden continued to take part in the professors' ceremonial meetings."

Even though Maria von Linden went far as a pioneer of science, she was unable to override the laws of a patriarchal society. Ute Planert wrote in 1993: "She fought for the unusual, but ultimately came up against the limits of a narrow-minded male society".

The rights to the above text are held by  Haus der FrauenGeschichte Bonn e.V. (opens in a new tab)

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